Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory

an innovative lesson plan on scope of marketing

INNOVATIVE LESSON PLAN

reflective practice

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE

Reflective practice is the capacity to reflect on action so as to engage in a process of continuous learning. According to one definition it involves "paying critical attention to the practical values and theories which inform everyday actions, by examining practice reflectively and reflexively. This leads to developmental insight”^. A key rationale for reflective practice is that experience alone does not necessarily lead to learning; deliberate reflection on experience is essential.

History and background

Donald Schön's 1983 book The Reflective Practitioner introduced concepts such as reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action which explain how professionals meet the challenges of their work with a kind of improvisation that is improved through practice. However, the concepts underlying reflective practice are much older. Earlier in the 20th century, John Dewey was among the first to write about reflective practice with his exploration of experience, interaction and reflection.^[7] Soon thereafter, other researchers such as Kurt Lewin and Jean Piaget were developing relevant theories of human learning and development.^[8] Some scholars have claimed to find precursors of reflective practice in ancient texts such as Buddhist teachings and the Meditations of Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius.

The emergence in more recent years of blogging has been seen as another form of reflection on experience in a technological age.

 

TEACHER AS A REFLECTIVE PRACTITIONER

The concept of reflective practice is now widely employed in the field of teacher education and teacher professional development and is the basis for many programmes of initial teacher education. In education, reflective practice refers to the process of the educator studying his or her own teaching methods and determining what works best for the students. It involves the consideration of the ethical consequences of classroom procedures on students. Education professor Hope Hartman has described reflective practice in education as teacher metacognition.

There is broad consensus that teaching effectively requires a reflective approach. However, reflective practice "is a term that carries diverse meaning" and about which there is not complete consensus. Teaching and learning is complex, and there is not one right approach. Reflecting on different approaches to teaching, and reshaping the understanding of past and current experiences, will lead to improvement in teaching practices. Schön's reflection-in-action can help teachers explicitly incorporate into their decision-making the professional knowledge that they gain from their experience in the classroom.

Through reflective practice, teachers are looking back on their practice and reflecting on how they have supported students through treating them "equitably and with respect and are sensitive to factors that influence individual student learning”. By doing this, teachers are asking themselves: "Have I to the best of my abilities supported student learning, and provided all of my students with an entry point into learning?" Through reflection, and sharing their reflection, teachers show strong leadership because they show that they are willing to learn from their mistakes and improve their practice for everyone affected by it.

Video recordings of classroom activities have been used to help education interns develop more detailed reflective practice

Reflective teaching means looking at what you do in the classroom, thinking about why you do it, and thinking about if it works - a process of self-observation and self-evaluation.

By collecting information about what goes on in our classroom, and by analysing and evaluating this information, we identify and explore our own practices and underlying beliefs. This may then lead to changes and improvements in our teaching.

Reflective teaching is therefore a means of professional development which begins in our classroom.

Importance of reflective teaching

Many teachers already think about their teaching and talk to colleagues about it too. You might think or tell someone that "My lesson went well" or "My students didn't seem to understand" or "My students were so badly behaved today."

However, without more time spent focussing on or discussing what has happened, we may tend to jump to conclusions about why things are happening. Reflective teaching therefore implies a more systematic process of collecting, recording and analysing our thoughts and observations, as well as those of our students, and then going on to making changes.

• ·         If a lesson went well we can describe it and think about why it was successful.

• ·         If the students didn't understand a language point we introduced we need to think about what we did and why it may have been unclear.

• ·         If students are misbehaving - what were they doing, when and why?

Beginning the process of reflection

You may begin a process of reflection in response to a particular problem that has arisen with one or your classes, or simply as a way of finding out more about your teaching.

The first step is to gather information about what happens in he class. Here are some different ways of doing this.

1.      Teacher diary : This is the easiest way to begin a process of reflection since it is purely personal. After each lesson you write in a notebook about what happened. You may also describe your own reactions and feelings and those you observed on the part of the students. You are likely to begin to pose questions about what you have observed. Diary writing does require a certain discipline in taking the time to do it on a regular basis.

2.      Peer observation: Invite a colleague to come into your class to collect information about your lesson. This may be with a simple observation task or through note taking. This will relate back to the area you have identified to reflect upon. For example, you might ask your colleague to focus on which students contribute most in the lesson, what different patterns of interaction occur or how you deal with errors.

3.      Recording lessons: Video or audio recordings of lessons can provide very useful information for reflection. You may do things in class you are not aware of or there may be things happening in the class that as the teacher you do not normally see. Audio recordings can be useful for considering aspects of teacher talk.

 How much do you talk? Are instructions and explanations clear? How much time do you allocate to student talk? How do you respond to student talk?

Video recordings can be useful in showing you aspects of your own behaviour.

Where do you stand? Who do you speak to? How do you come across to the students?

4.      Student feedback: You can also ask your students what they think about what goes on in the classroom. Their opinions and perceptions can add a different and valuable perspective. This can be done with simple questionnaires or learning diaries for example.

What to do next?

Once you have some information recorded about what goes on in your classroom, what do you do?

·         Think: You may have noticed patterns occurring in your teaching through your observation. You may also have noticed things that you were previously unaware of. You may have been surprised by some of your students' feedback. You may already have ideas for changes to implement.

·         Talk: Just by talking about what you have discovered - to a supportive colleague or even a friend - you may be able to come up with some ideas for how to do things differently.

·         If you have colleagues who also wish to develop their teaching using reflection as a tool, you can meet to discuss issues. Discussion can be based around scenarios from your own classes.

·         Using a list of statements about teaching beliefs (for example, pair work is a valuable activity in the language class or lexis is more important than grammar) you can discuss which ones you agree or disagree with, and which ones are reflected in your own teaching giving evidence from your self-observation.

·         Read: You may decide that you need to find out more about a certain area. There are plenty of websites for teachers now where you can find useful teaching ideas, or more academic articles. There are also magazines for teachers where you can find articles on a wide range of topics. Or if you have access to a library or bookshop

·         Ask: Pose questions to websites or magazines to get ideas from other teachers. Or if you have a local teachers' association or other opportunities for in-service training, ask for a session on an area that interests you.

Conclusion

Reflective teaching is a cyclical process, because once you start to implement changes, then the reflective and evaluative cycle begins again.

·         What are you doing?

·         Why are you doing it?

·         How effective is it?

·         How are the students responding?

·         How can you do it better?

As a result of your reflection you may decide to do something in a different way, or you may just decide that what you are doing is the best way. And that is what professional development is all about.

individualized instruction

 

INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION

 

Individualized instruction is also known as differentiated instruction.

Individualized instruction strategy refers to those classroom practices of teaching which recognize the uniqueness of each student learner and thus provide for adequate tutorial guidance, and other support services suited to bring about a wholesome development in the person (mind, body, and spirit).

Individualized instruction is about using teaching strategies that connect with individual student’s learning strategies. The ultimate goal is to provide a learning environment that will maximize the potential for student success.

Differentiated instruction is an instructional theory that allows teachers to face this challenge by taking diverse student factors into account when planning and delivering instruction. Based on this theory, teachers can structure learning environments that address the variety of learning styles, interests, and abilities found within a classroom.

In this strategy the teacher shouldn’t always stick to the same pattern of teaching rather they should adapt new ways such as teaching through audio, video, field trip, etc. so that students have multiple options for taking in information and making sense of ideas.

To differentiate or to individualize instruction is to recognize students varying background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning, interests, and to react responsively. The intent of individualizing instruction is to maximize each student’s growth and individual success by meeting each student where he or she is, and assisting in the learning process. It provides the opportunity for students to learn at their own pace, in their own way, and be successful.

 

Importance of individualized strategy

•       To enhance and develop listening habit

• Since most of the teaching is done through lecturing, the role of students are to listen and if felt necessary take note of them. The learning of the leaners greatly dependent on their listening habit and sense of hearing, thus helping them in enhancing their listening habit.
•   Enables the teachers to explain a lesson or demonstrate a technique to small groups of students at a time.

• Here the smaller the number of students are the greater is the advantage of the teachers in teaching or explaining a lesson  or to demonstrate a technique to their students. In short smaller the number of students , more efficient the teaching or demonstration  will be.

•       Individualizing instruction allows each student to progress through the curriculum at his or her own pace.

• It aims at how much the learner learn and pace at which they learn. Less important is given to covering the topics in the curriculum. Vital importance is given to the progress the learner are making in the field of learner at his or her own pace (the rate and speed at which they learn).

•       Long term retention as they note down what they usually understand.

• While the teacher is teaching in the class, students are actively engage in taking note of what they really understand instead of what the teacher explain. They usually note down what they understand and are usually listed in their own words. So, this helps them to retain the information for a longer period of time.

•         Importance is given to a child as an individual not as group, class and so on.

• The strategy is more concern about how much a single child is able to learn, retain and his or her progress not as a group, class and team. As the current phase of children education says ‘no child is left behind’.  So, the focus is on a child as an individual.

Principles of Individualized Instruction Strategy.

• Make the students clear about the key points and generalization to make sure that all learners gain a powerful and strong understanding so that they can have a good foundation for their future learning. Teachers are encouraged to identify essential concepts and instructional focuses to ensure all learners understand.

• Use assessment as a teaching tool to extend versus merely measure instruction. Assessment should occur before, during, and following the instructional episode. The assessment carried out before and during can be incorporated into classroom practice; it provides information needed to adjust teaching and learning while they are happening. E.g. Observation, questioning strategies, self and peer assessment, student’s record keeping. The assessment carried out before and during instructional episode is called formative assessment. And the assessment evaluated after instruction is called summative assessment. It is carried out every few weeks, months, or chapter tests. E.g. End of unit or chapter tests, end of term or semester exams.

•  Emphasize and stress more on critical and creative thinking while designing a lesson. Whatever task and activities that we provide to the students should be up to the student’s level and understanding, so that they can understand easily and will apply meaning. Instruction may require supports, additional motivation, varied tasks, materials, or equipment for different students in the classroom

•  Engaging all learners is essential. We should engage and make the students participate in class activities. For that teachers should develop their lesson to engage and motivate the students.

•  Provide a balance between teacher-assigned and student-selected tasks. If there is a balance between the task and activities that are assigned by the teachers and the tasks selected by the students, the learning will be most favourable and desirable.

PERSONALISED SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION

The Keller Plan, also called the Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), was developed by Fred S. Keller with J. Gilmour Sherman, Carolina Bori, and Rodolpho Azzi in the middle 1960s as an innovative method of instruction for the then-new University of Brasília. PSI was conceived of as an application of Skinner's theories of learning, grounded in operant conditioning strategies of behaviorism.

 

PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

Programmed learning (or programmed instruction) is a research-based system which helps learners work successfully. The method is guided by research done by a variety of applied psychologists and educators.^[1]

The learning material is in a kind of textbook or teaching machine or computer. The medium presents the material in a logical and tested sequence. The text is in small steps or larger chunks. After each step, learners are given a question to test their comprehension. Then immediately the correct answer is shown. This means the learner at all stages makes responses, and is given immediate knowledge of results.^[2][3]

It is rather interesting that Edward L. Thorndike wrote in 1912: "If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print".^[4][5]

 

curriculum is the crux of whole educational process

CURRICULUM IS THE CRUX OF WHOLE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS.

 

            Curriculum is the crux of whole educational process. Without curriculum, we cannot conceive any educational endeavour.

            The curriculum in a literal sense is a pathway towards a goal. The educational process is set into motion towards its aim through the curriculum or course. Education finds its effects and results through implementation of its curriculum by the school. Curriculum may be considered as an educational programme.

            Curriculum is what actually happens through a course, i.e., lecture, demonstration, field visits and so on.

            The word ‘curriculum’ was formed from the Latin word ‘currere’ which means ‘the race, the path or lap or course or runway’. If the teacher is the guide, curriculum is the path. Curriculum is the total structure of ideas and activities.

            Pedagogically curriculum means the course of the studies to be pursued by the students or the content of the education to be imparted through organisation of its entire work. The course of study forms the basis for writing of textbooks and preparing of teacher’s guides. Curriculum also means a written description of what happens.

 

CONCEPTS OF CURRICULUM

The concept if Curriculum is dynamic as the changes that occur in society. In its narrow sense, curriculum is viewed merely as a listing of subject to be taught in school. In a broader sense, it refers to the total learning experiences of individuals not only in schools but in society as well.

 

Process of curriculum

Evalutation of products

SIGNIFICANCE OF CURRICULUM

In Elementary Schools

In elementary schools, the curriculum is primarily drawn by the educational boards or some central society. They study the needs of the kids and all other feasibilities before selecting courses and drafting a curriculum. Here, the students have least choice in their subjects and study based on a universal curriculum, which works on all sections of the students’ psyche and aid in the total development of the student. No area is left untouched. Hence, the curriculum aids in the proper development, while the child comes to terms with his or her own inclination. Therefore, at primary school levels, the curriculum aims at providing a structured platform, which gives every child an equal opportunity to excel.

 

In High Schools

At high school levels, teenagers can take their own liberty in choosing their path. Though complete autonomy does not rest with a student, a level of choice is very evident. This helps in the development of the teenager, with added importance of being given the field of his own choice. At this stage, the development is more focused and rampant, enhanced through a proper curriculum. Without an effective curriculum, a student would not be able to understand or meet the challenges of the society.

 

At College & Higher Education

At a higher stage of education, an unprecedented autonomy is provided to the students. The students can opt for a more focused curriculum, based on their choice of subjects. A student will graduate, post-graduate or attain a doctorate based on the choice of his subjects and the mode of his study, both or either one determined by him. The curriculum here is reduced to just a framework that is very flexible yet very important. The curriculum chosen by the student will go on to determine the shape of his career. A curriculum prepares an individual with the knowledge to be successful, confident and responsible citizens.

 

TYPES OF CURRICULUM

Since curriculum reflects the models of instructional delivery chosen and used, some might indicate that curriculum could be categorized according to the common psychological classifications of the four families of learning theories “Social, Information Processing, Personalist, and Behavioral.” Longstreet and Shane have dubbed divisions in curricular orientations as: child-centered, society-centered, knowledge-centered, or eclectic. Common philosophical orientations of curriculum parallel those beliefs espoused by different philosophical orientations  – Idealism, Realism, Perennialism, Essentialism, Experimentalism, Existentialism, Constructivism, Reconstructivism and the like.

Whatever classification one gravitates to, the fact remains that at one time or another curriculum in the United States has, at some level, been impacted by all of the above. In essence, American curriculum is hard to pin down because it is multi-layered and highly eclectic.

FUNCTIONS OF CURRICULUM

1.      As curriculum consists of curricular and co-curricular activities, it plays an important role in the mental, moral, emotional, social, emotional and physical development of an individual. The curricular activities help in the intellectual growth while the co-curricular activities help in the all-round development of the learner.

2.      Responsible and useful citizens can be produced by a well organized educational programme.

3.      Basic skills like reading, writing, speaking and understanding in certain language can be developed properly by applying suitable curriculum

4.      The function of each society is to preserve its culture and transmit to the next generation. This function can be performed in  a suitable way by the curriculum

5.      Curriculum makes the individual broad minded

6.      It provides knowledge about the world

7.      It inculcates various values.

8.      It helps in developing a positive outlook towards life

9.      It enables individuals to engage in useful tasks.

10.  It improves the social emotional and economical conditions.

 

 

CONCLUSION

 

Curriculum is  for the continuity and consistency of education, both which contribute to quality. If there is no set curriculum, you may not prepare your students for their next level of study, or what they learn in one classroom will be inconsistent with another.